AFRICAN KINGS, PRESTIGE AND CONSTRAINT

CONTROL OF ECONOMIES WOULD LEAD RULERS TO EXTEND THEIR POWER, BUT SYMBOLS OF ROYALTY RESTRAIN THEM

-- On constraints' universality:

The Golden Bough, a Study of Magic and Religion by Sir James Frazer, 1890

 Isolation

Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in 1821, 1822, 1823

by Captain Hugh Clapperton, London, 1826.

.

"The Sultan of Bornu receives the mission"

The barrier emphasizes the aura of the sultan of Bornu (in Northern Nigeria), while separating him and giving power to his entourage.  

Obesity, prestigious when food is scarce

• "Large bellies [...] are indispensable attributes for whoever serves the court of Bornu. Those whom nature has not favored... compensate... with a quantity of stuffing that when they are on horseback, give their bellies the singular appearance of hanging over the saddle." 

• "His death was attributed to his extreme corpulence [...] his exhausted horse refused to go on [...].

-- Clapperton, pp. 76-77. 

For a wider view of obesity, please click.

Headdresses

"Those whose turbans seemed the most carefully arranged were obliged... to lean their heads to one side... that of the sultan was largest of all."

-- Clapperton, following the image above.

  

Same idea 

Hapi IV, king of Bana (Cameroon), Rois d'Afrique by Daniel Lainé, 1991

Reference on preceding page.

The hat sets Louis XIV apart, but like the rest of his costume keeps him from easily moving.

Rulers are in the heart of battle but are not allowed to fight —

exploits would reinforce them:

That king who "according to custom was not armed, sat down under a tree surrounded by his eunuchs [...] he calmly awaited his death [...] and was pierced by a hundred spears." 

 -- Same (bold added).

In Darfur, the army surrounds the ruler "as a ring surrounds the finger." When a king enters a fight nevertheless, his vassals abandon him and say, "All we ask is that you ride with us in the center of the army. We do the fighting [...]"

They strangle him.

 -- Al-Tunisi, Voyage to Darfur, 1845, p. 79 (bold added).

Ritual

Though known for his energy, king Gelele of Dahomey is so exhausted after eight hours of parading in noise and dust that he cancels the rest of the festivities.  

-- Richard Burton, A Visit to Gelele, King of Dahomey (1864), 1966: pp. 186-7

    

"Kings do not travel as quickly as ordinary men
and I must convey you as slowly as possible."  

-- Journal of an Expedition to explore the Course and Termination of the Niger

by John and Richard Lander, 1832, p. 257.

 *     *     *

Next,
"Absurd" succession practices

"ABSURD" SUCCESSION PRACTICES

-- "Absurd:" 
Anne Raffenel, Voyage en Afrique occidentale, 1846, p. 280

TO PREVENT THE RISE OF POWERFUL DYNASTIES, KEEP THEM FROM TRANSMITTING WEALTH 

Throughout Africa until about 1800 kings cannot leave their riches to sons, a prohibition that encourages them to distribute them and keeps monarchies weak. 

Succession practices differ, but have the same effect. 

• Succession goes from brother to brother, and since a "vicious principle" extends the term to cousins, it is "impossible that he who governs not be of an advanced age" (on the Senegal and Middle Niger).

-- Raffenel

• Reigns last only two years (in Futa Toro, Senegal).

• Succession struggles disperse treasure (in Borgu, Nigeria).

• When a local chief dies his wives, slaves and horses are sent to his superior (in Mossi, Burkina Faso).

• A ruler's death brings generalized pillaging (in Bonduku and Anno, Ivory Coast).

• A king's riches are buried with him (in Ashanti, Ghana).

• A ruler's favorite wife destroys all he owns and then takes poison herself (in Oyo, Nigeria),

 -- Lander tells of the wife of an Oyo chief who tries to survive: 1832, I, p. 112.

For the other references: Aubin, pp. 473-4, n.148-156.

Elsewhere: An Assyrian king has all his property destroyed before committing suicide.

The Death of Sardonopolus by Eugene Delacroix, 1827

Rather than accept defeat, as the story says? Or an example of the need to destroy wealth, to keep it from strengthening forces that menace? 

Such stories are usually point to something deeper than the immediate drama.

In Europe, 

the practice of having rulers' eldest sons

inherit the throne and its wealth

indicates stronger kingship and economies. 

That the exception should be Poland,

which was particularly far from the main centers of commerce,

makes sense. 

*     *     *
 
Next,
Kings of medieval Europe are also restrained

KINGS OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE ARE ALSO RESTRAINED

THEY TOO MAKE RICHES CIRCULATE AND THEY TOO ARE KEPT IN CHECK: ROYAL "JOYOUS ENTRIES" ARE SYMBOLS OF PERMANENCE

Standing or seated, kings' image is static. Crowns and heavy robes keep them from moving. Holding emblems of power keeps them from using their hands: 

Toledo Cathedral, 1220-1240 / zoom

God measuring cosmos and earth using a pair of compasses 

France's Louis IX (Saint Louis), medieval manuscript, 1283 / zoom;

 England's Richard II, coronation portrait (1377), Westminster Abbey / zoom

   Illuminated manuscript, end 13th century / zoom

Pontius Pilate and Jesus (or Alphonso X and his court), Castille

Zoom

Altarpiece of Ghent by Hubert and Jan van Eyck, 1532

Ramsay Casadesus Rawson

Venice, 16th century

Moses and Aaron before the Pharaoh, toward 1620 / zoom

Flanders. Notice the hat.

# # #

Next,

Detour: Christ becomes a warrior or king

DETOUR: CHRIST BECOMES A WARRIOR OR KING

 

FOR EARLY CHRISTIANS HE IS THE GOOD SHEPHERD, A YOUNG MAN WHO RESEMBLES FIGURES OF MYTHOLOGY

The familiar image comes naturally. It also evades Roman authorities who, it is hoped, will not grasp the Christian reference. 

Roman catacombs, third century / zoom

     Toward 570 BC / zoom

                                                           250-300 A.D / zoom

Hermès carried a ram on his shoulders to protect against disease and Christians used him to present a young, unbearded Jesus, the good shepherd who carried a lamb on his shoulders as he would carry their souls to Heaven. He holds a pail of milk to nourish his people: origin of the Eucharist? 

*For Catholics, a sip of wine and a special biscuit represent communion with the body of Christ. The Trinity represents "God in three persons, the Father, Son and the Holy Ghost."  

Being surrounded by two sheep emphasized the central figure: Taken up in the European paintings below but not in otherwise similar images from elsewhere, is it the origin of the Trinity?

# # #

When Rome makes Christianity its official religion, Christ becomes a warrior or king. Here Jesus wears the costume of Roman soldiers and emperors' purple cloak : 

       Christ as warrior, archiepiscopal chapel in Ravenna, sixth century / zoom

 Zoom

John 14.6: I am the way, and the truth, and the life. Lion and snake: Psalm 91: Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet.

The figure becomes Saint Michael slaying the dragon, the combat of Good against Evil. 

For its symbolism in France after the defeat

 of the working-class insurrection of 1848, please click.

The image becomes that of archaic rulers generally:

     Basilica of Santa Pudenziana, Rome, fifth century, tour / zoom 

Zoom

*    *    *

Next,  

Static kings are universal

STATIC KINGS ARE UNIVERSAL

 

PHOTO ROIS D'AFRIQUE, LOUVRE

 Zoom

Assyrian king Sennacherib, toward 700 BC

 Zoom

Emperor Shomo, Japan, 13th century

# # #

Suddenly in 16th-century Europe, kings are shown fighting on horseback:

Tapestry (detail), Renaissance Museum

 King David, Brussels, about 1520

He is not dressed for combat. Vassals surround him so he cannot fight, as in parts of the African savannah. Yet he's on horseback.

The change implies more active kings:
To be continued.

*     *     * 

Next,
Commercial peoples' subordination

COMMERCIAL PEOPLES' SUBORDINATION

KINGS FAVOR OUTSIDERS WHOSE VULNERABILITY FACILITATES CONTROL 

In animist or Christian Africa, kings impose Muslim merchants,

whose different appearance, religion and customs separate them from the local population.

In turn-of-the-18th-century Ashanti (Ghana) the animist ruler welcomes Muslim traders but confiscates the gold of those who are local. At about the same time, the king of Christian Shoa (Ethiopia) lets Muslims trade in goods that he monopolizes, asks few taxes and favors them in disputes.  

-- Aubin p. 448, n. 46.

In Africa, foreign traders have no provisions, guides or contact with the population until they obtain the king's approval.

 Dutch Ambassadors at the Court of Garcia II, King of Kongo, 1668 / zoom

The Dutch ambassadors' subservience comes from being associated with traders, the only foreigners.  

• Until it has seen the Bornu ruler (Northern Nigeria) a British mission is completely isolated, but then "our hut was filled with so many visitors that we could take no rest and the heat was unbearable."

• In Darfur, the merchant W.G. Browne finds his letters of recommendation useless until he has seen the Sultan, "for until then no one knew how to treat me." 

• In Bundu (Senegal) the explorer Raffenel leaves the capital without the king's permission and cannot even obtain water... 

Bornu: Captain Hugh Clapperton, 1826; other citations : Aubin 447, n. 45.

French artists present that subordination when painting other cultures, because that is how their own works.

Marco Polo arriving at the Court of Kublai Khan by Jehan de Grise Zoom

Flanders, toward 1340.

Same subject, manuscript of Robert Fresher / zoom

England or France, toward 1500

# # #

In early medieval Europe only Jews can trade, and only Christians own land.

The king gives permission to trade to Jews, shown by wearing the red and white circles, not to Christians.

Jews pay tribute...

Zoom

Alexander the Great, dressed as a Byzantine emperor, receives Jewish rabbis identified by their headpieces, in the novel Alexander Romance (3rd century BC), manuscript of the 14th century. 

And are useful scapegoats. 

Zoom

Fourteenth-century manuscript shows Jews judged responsible for the Black Death burned alive in Belgium, 1349. That occurred throughout western Europe, and by fanatical Crusaders on the way to Jerusalem.

They are expelled from time to time. When the expanding economy brings the rise of local entrepreneurs, they are definitively banned. 

(In 1305-1311)

Zoom 

Expulsion from England, in 1290

# # #

Christian replace Jews, but stronger power contains them by...

  

• The Church

                                                                                                                                                          Zoom

At the Saint-Denis fair, the abbot dominates the traders and his benediction is an act of authority.

•  Tougher monarchy 

Both photos, Claude Abron

Louis XIV's  royal gates loom over trade routes (the Saint-Denis and Saint-Martin gates, 1674). The inscription announces that the merchants of Paris have financed both monuments, "in homage to the great king."

Praising the king is obligatory,

financing an arc to express one's homage is not.
    Ascendant French merchants are stating, 

 "We are here!"

End of this chapter.

*      *      * 

Next chapter,

III, 2.
Ritualized war, another barrier to growth